GSM

 

   

                    

GSM, which stands for Global System for Mobile communications, reigns as the world’s most widely used cell phone technology. Cell phones use a cell phone service carrier’s GSM network by searching for cell phone towers in the nearby area. The origins of GSM can be traced back to 1982 when the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) was created by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) for the purpose of designing a pan-European mobile technology.

•  The GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers, who may benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network operators, who can choose equipment from many GSM equipment vendors. GSM also pioneered low-cost implementation of the short message service (SMS), also called text messaging, which has since been supported on other mobile phone standards as well. The standard includes a worldwide emergency telephone number feature.    

Technical details

GSM cell site antennas in the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

GSM carrier frequencies

GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most 2G GSM networks operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these bands were already allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in Canada and the United States). In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries because they were previously used for first-generation systems.Most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band.

Voice codecs

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 6.5 and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (6.5 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.

Network structure

The network is structured into a number of discrete sections:

•  The Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).

•  the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.

•        The GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections).

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking.

Phone locking

Sometimes mobile network operators restrict handsets that they sell for use with their own network. This is called locking and is implemented by a software feature of the phone. Because the purchase price of the mobile phone to the consumer is typically subsidized with revenue from subscriptions, operators must recoup this investment before a subscriber terminates service. A subscriber may usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of free or fee-based software and websites to unlock the handset themselves.

GSM service security

GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.

GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its ability and plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.

GSM features:

•        gsmd daemon by Openmoko

•        OpenBTS develops a Base transceiver station

•        OpenBSC is developing a minimalistic, self-contained GSM network

•        The GSM Software Project aims to build a GSM analyzer for less than $1000

•        OsmocomBB developers intend to replace the proprietary baseband GSM stack with a free software implementation

Issues with patents and open source

Patents remain a problem for any open source GSM implementation, because it is not possible for GNU or any other free software distributor to guarantee immunity from all lawsuits by the patent holders against the users. Furthermore new features are being added to the standard all the time which means they have patent protection for a number of years.

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Wireless Charging Of Mobile Phones Using Microwaves

With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery stand by according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out.

INTRODUCTION :

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

When white light is shone through a prism it is separated out into all the colors of the rainbow; this is the visible spectrum. So white light is a mixture  of  all colors.  Black is NOT a color; it is what you get when all the light is taken away.  Some physicists pretend that light consists of tiny particles which they call photons. They travel at the speed of light. The speed of light is about 300,000,000 meters per second. When they hit something they might bounce off, go right through or get absorbed. What happens depends a bit on how much energy they have. If they bounce off something and then go into your eye you will "see" the thing they have bounced off. Some things like glass and Perspex will let them go through; these materials are transparent.

TRANSMITTER DESIGN

MAGNETRON:

Ø Magnetron is a high power microwave oscillator and it is used in microwave oven and radar transmitter.

Ø It is itself a special kind of vacum tube that has permanent magnet in its constructions.

Ø This magnet is setup to affect the path of travel of electrons that are in transit from cathode to the plate.

Ø Magnetron is capable to deliver more power than reflex klystron or gunn diode.

Ø It is a high power oscillator and has high efficiency of 50% to 80%.

RECEIVER DESIGN

The basic addition to the mobile phone is going to be the rectenna. A rectenna is a rectifying antenna, a special type of antenna that is used to directly convert microwave energy into DC electricity. Its elements are usually arranged in a mesh pattern, giving it a distinct appearance from most antennae. A simple rectenna can be constructed from a Schottky diode placed between antenna dipoles. The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Rectennae are highly efficient at converting microwave energy to electricity. In laboratory environments, efficiencies above 90% have been observed with regularity.

Inductive charging

Magne  Charge wall, handheld, and floor moun Inductive Charging. The primary coil in the charger induces a current in the secondary coil in the device being charged. Inductive charging uses an electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects. This is usually done with a charging station. Energy is sent through an inductive coupling to an electrical device, which can then use that energy to charge batteries or run the device.

Induction chargers typically use an induction coil to create an alternating electromagnetic field from within a charging base station, and a second induction coil in the portable device takes power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back into electrical current to charge the battery. The two induction coils in proximity combine to form an electrical transformer.

Electric vehicles:

As mentioned above, Magne Charge inductive charging was employed by several types of electric vehicles around 1998, but was discontinued after the California Air Resources Board selected the SAE J1772-2001, or "Avcon", conductive charging interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001.

In 2009, Evatran, a subsidiary of MTC Transformers, formally began development of Plugless Power, an inductive charging system they claim is the world’s first hands-free, plugless, proximity charging system for Electric Vehicles. With the participation of the local municipality and several businesses, field trials were begun in March 2010, on the system scheduled to be available in fourth quarter 2010.

Advantages:

Ø Lower risk of electrical shock or shorting out when wet because there are no exposed conductors as used with conductive wireless charging, for example toothbrushes and shavers, or outdoors.

Ø Protected connections - no corrosion when the electronics are all enclosed, away from water or oxygen in the atmosphere.

Ø Safer for medical implants - for embedded medical devices, allows recharging/powering through the skin rather than having wires penetrate the skin, which would increase the risk of infection.Convenience - rather than having to connect a power cable, the device can be placed on or close to a charge plate or stand.

Disadvantages

Ø Lower efficiency, waste heat - The main disadvantages of inductive charging are its lower efficiency and increased resistive heating in comparison to direct contact. Implementations using lower frequencies or older drive technologies charge more slowly and generate heat within most portable electronics.

Ø More costly - Inductive charging also requires drive electronics and coils in both device and charger, increasing the complexity and cost of manufacturing.

Ø Slower charging - due to the lower efficiency, devices can take longer to charge when supplied power is equal.

CONCLUSION :

Thus this paper successfully demonstrates a novel method of using the power of the microwave to charge the mobile phones without the use of wired chargers. Thus this method provides great advantage to the mobile phone users to carry their phones anywhere even if the place is devoid of facilities for charging. A novel use of the rectenna and a sensor in a mobile phone could provide a new dimension in the revelation of mobile phone.

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Lifetime Prediction Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a      self-configuring  infrastructureless network of mobile devices connected by wireless. Ad hoc is Latin and means "for this purpose".

Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore change its links to other devices frequently. Each must forward traffic unrelated to its own use, and therefore be a router. The primary challenge in building a MANET is equipping each device to continuously maintain the information required to properly route traffic. Such networks may operate by themselves or may be connected to the larger Internet.

MANETs are a kind of Wireless ad hoc network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network.

MANET Routing Protocols

Routing protocols in ad hoc networks are categorized in two

groups:

·        Proactive (Table Driven

·        Reactive (On-Demand)

    Ø Proactive (Table-Driven) Routing Protocols

These routing protocols are similar to and come as a natural Extension of those for the wired networks. In proactive routing, Initial  draft. Please do not distribute. each node has one or more tables that contain the latest information of the routes to any node in the network. Each row has the   next hop for reaching a node/subnet and the cost of this route.Various table-driven protocols differ in the way the information about a change in topology is propagated through all nodes in the network.

        ØReactive (On-Demand) Protocols

Reactive routing is also known as on-demand routing. These protocols take a lazy approach to routing. They do not maintain or constantly update their route tables with the latest route topology. Examples of reactive routing protocols are the dynamic source Routing, ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing and temporally ordered routing algorithm. Our power-aware source routing algorithm belongs to this category of routing algorithms. Since our approach is and enhancement over DSR, a brief description of DSR is warranted DSR is one of the more generally accepted reactive routing protocols. 

Previous Work

The main focus of research on routing protocols in MANETs has been network performance. There has been some study on poweraware routing protocols for MANETs. Presented below is a brief review of some of them.

    

        Ø Power–aware Routing

Reference  proposes a routing algorithm based on minimizing

the amount of power (or energy per bit) required to get a packet

from source to destination. More precisely, the problem is stated

as:

Σ∈

+

π i π

Min Ti ,i 1 (1)

where Ti,i+1 denotes the power expended for transmitting (and

receiving) between two consecutive nodes, i and i+1, in route π.

This link cost can be defined for two cases:

• When the transmit power is fixed

• When the transmit power is varied dynamically as a

function of the distance between the transmitter and intended receiver. For the first case, energy for each operation (receive, transmit, broadcast, discard, etc.) where b and c are the appropriate coefficients for each operation. Coefficient b denotes the packet size-dependent energy consumption whereas c is a fixed cost that accounts for acquiring the channel and for MAC layer control negotiation. The second case is more involved. Reference  proposes a local routing algorithm for this case. The authors assume that the power needed for transmission and reception is a linear function of dα where d is distance between the two neighboring nodes and α is a parameter that depends on the physical environment

         ØBattery-cost Lifetime-aware Routing

The main disadvantage of the problem formulation of reference is that it always selects the least-power cost routes. As a result, nodes along these least-power cost routes tend to “die” soon because of the battery energy exhaustion. This is doubly harmfulsince the nodes that die early are precisely the ones that are needed most to maintain the network connectivity (and hence useful service life). Therefore, it will be better to use a higher power costroute if this routing solution avoids using nodes that have a small amount of remaining battery energy.

1. Minimum battery cost routing algorithm minimizes thetotal cost of the route. More precisely, this algorithmminimizes the summation of inverse of remaining

battery capacity for all nodes on the routing path .

2. Min-Max battery cost routing algorithm is a modification of the minimum battery cost routing. This algorithm attempts to avoid the route with nodes having

the least battery capacity among all nodes in all possible routes. Thereby, it results in smooth use of the battery of each node

3. Conditional Max-Min battery capacity routing algorithm was proposed in .This algorithm chooses the route with minimal total transmission power if all nodes in the route have remaining battery capacities higher than a threshold; otherwise, routes that consist of nodes with the lowest remaining battery capacities are avoided. Several experiments have been performed in to compare different battery cost-aware routing in terms of the network lifetime.

4. Maximum Residual Packet Capacity (MRPC) was proposed in . MRPC is conceptually similar to the conditional Min-Max battery cost, but MRPC identifies

the capacity of a node not just by the residual battery capacity, but also by the expected energy spent inreliably forwarding a packet over a specific link.

5. Power-aware Source Routing (PSR) (proposed in  is an on-demand source routing that uses state of the charge of battery to maximize the lifetime of a MANET. PSR solves the problem of finding a route π at route

Lifetime Prediction Routing

         Ø Basic Mechanism

Lifetime Prediction Routing (LPR) is an on demand source routing protocol that uses battery lifetime prediction. The objective of this routing protocol is to extend the service life of MANET with dynamic topology. This protocol favors the path

whose lifetime is maximum. We represent our objective function

as follow:

Tπ (t) Min (Ti (t))

i

Max

π ∈π

= (5)

where:

π

π π

(t) : predicted lifetime of node i in path

T ( ) : lifetime of path

i

t

Τ

Lifetime Prediction: Each node tries to estimate its battery lifetime based on its past activity. This is achieved using a Simple Moving Average (SMA) predictor by keeping track of the last N values of residual energy and the corresponding time instances for the last N packets received/relayed by each mobile node. This information is recorded and stored in each node. We have carefully compared the predicted lifetimes based on the SMA approach to the actual lifetimes for different values of N and found N=10 to be a good value. Our motivation in using lifetime prediction is that mobility introduces different dynamics into the network. In the lifetime of a node is a function of residual energy in the node and energy to transmit a bit from the node to its neighbors. 

       Ø Route Discovery

In DSR, activity begins with the source node flooding the network

with RREQ packets when it has data to send. An intermediate

node broadcasts the RREQ unless:

• It gets a path to the destination from its cache, or

• It has previously broadcast the same RREQ packet. (this

fact is known from the sequence number of the RREQ

and the sender ID.) Consequently, intermediate nodes forward only the first received

RREQ packet. The destination node only replies to the first arrived RREQ since that packet tends to take the shortest path. In LPR, all nodes except the destination calculate their predicted lifetime, Ti and replace the min lifetime in the header with Ti if Ti is lower than the existing min lifetime value in the header.

Experimental Results

        Ø Simulation Setup

We used the event driven simulator ns-2  along with thewireless extensions provided by CMU . The simulationconsists of a network of 20 nodes confined in a 1000 X 1000 m2 area. Random connections were established using CBR traffic (at 4 packets/second) such that each node has chance to connect to every other node. Packet size was 512 bytes and each simulation was executed for 20000 sec

       

  Ø Simulation Results

The network lifetime is defined as the time taken for a fixed percentage of the nodes to die due to energy resource exhaustion. Network lifetime of DSR, PSR and LPR are compared for a given scenario. Here, the speed of each node is 10 m/s and radio

transmission range is 125 m. Figure 4 shows the time instances atwhich a certain number of nodes have died when simulating LPR, PSR and DSR. Note that in Similarly, in DSR 5 nodes die approximately 32% earlier than LPR and 27% earlier than LPR in the case of PSR.

Conclusion:

A routing protocol to enhance the lifetime of a given mobile adhoc network. We compare it with dynamic source routing (DSR), a popular routing technique used in MANETs which does not consider power but optimizes routing for shortest delay. The main objective of LPR is to minimize the variance in the remaining energies of all the nodes and thereby prolong the network lifetime. It achieves this by doing local decisions and with minimum overhead. We show that LPR brings about a clear increase in network lifetime. 

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